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Amputation and prosthetics

Once a patient has experienced an amputation, he/she might be surprised at how much basic motor skills he will have to relearn with his prosthetics and orthotics in order to regain a functioning level of “normal” mobility. This is why physical therapy is a vital component of the rehabilitation process.

As part of a complete series devoted to prosthetcs and orthotics, this week, we will discuss Phase 1 of the prosthetic rehabilitation process: Post-Operative Healing.

After surgery, there are four phases of the rehabilitation process through physical therapy:

Phase 1: Post-operative Healing

Immediately following surgery, a physical therapist will help the patient with:

Reducing and relieving pain

Facilitating wound healing

Preventing contractures (tight joints)

Mobility training (how best to move around while protecting the affected limb)

Light exercise

Education

After surgery, the patient will be on IV (intravenous) pain medication that may include a nerve blocker to control postsurgical pain. Then the IV is removed, and the patient is put on oral pain medication.

The wound will be monitored and cleaned, and the dressing changed daily to prevent infection and promote healing.

At this phase of the process, the patient must be careful with his resting body posture. Excessive time with hips and/ or knees in a bent position may result in the formation of contractures. A contracture occurs when the soft tissue around a joint shortens muscle tissue and hinders that joint’s range of motion. To prevent this problem, frequent position alteration is critical. This is where the physical therapist will begin to assist the patient. She will instruct the patient how to move in bed and to transfer out of bed using proper body mechanics while protecting the surgical site from injury.

Next, the patient will need to begin improving strength and endurance because by this time, patients have generally lost a considerable amount of muscle mass. The physical therapist will tailor an individual exercise program for each patient that will provide the most benefit with the least amount of discomfort.

Education of the patient is very important during this phase. The medical staff will take great care in explaining the rehabilitation process and answering the patient’s questions. Also, the physical therapist can educate the patient about prosthetic devices and returning the patient to a healthy level of mobility through physical therapy and prosthetic training.

Next week, we will examine the next phase of prosthetic rehabilitation, Preprosthetic Training. If you are in need of post-operative prosthetic or orthotic rehabilitation, don’t wait for your family physician; visit Excel Rehabilitation Services on Burnside Ave. in Gonzales, Louisiana. You will receive one-on-one professional care from an experienced physical therapist!

After surgery, there are four phases of the rehabilitation process. Last week we examined Phase 1: Post-operative Healing. Today, we will examine Phase 2: Preprosthetic Training.

Phase 2: Preprosthetic Training

In the preprosthetic phase, there are a number of factors that must be considered before the patient can be fitted for a new prosthetic limb. These include:

Edema (swelling) control

Residual-limb shaping

Improved cardiovascular conditioning

Strengthening

Preprosthetic gait training.

Edema is a problem because swelling puts pressure on the tissue and nerves and can cause a great deal of pain. If left untreated, the tissue will stretch to accommodate the increase in volume, and will result in excess tissue, which causes the prosthesis (artificial limb) to fit poorly. Of particular concern is severe edema, which can even result in tissue death.

The physical therapist will provide instructions for the proper application of compressive garments, such as elastic bandages and shrinker socks that shape the residual limb, which should be worn at all times unless otherwise directed by a physician.

Improving cardiovascular conditioning is the next step. Upper-extremity endurance is of particular importance, regardless of which limb is lost. The reason is that the patient will have to use some form of assistive device until he becomes proficient with his prosthesis. It takes a lot of energy to propel a wheelchair and walk with a walker and/or crutches. The strengthening program will include total body conditioning. Specific exercises will be developed to prepare the residual limb to be able to support full body weight while wearing a prosthesis. Once this process is completed, and the residual limb is fully healed and well-shaped, the patient will be fitted for the initial prosthesis.

Next week, we will examine the next phase of prosthetic rehabilitation, Basic Prosthetic Training.

If you are in need of post-operative prosthetic or orthotic rehabilitation, don’t wait for your family physician; visit Excel Rehabilitation Services on Burnside Ave. in Gonzales, Louisiana. You will receive one-on-one professional care from an experienced physical therapist!

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After surgery, there are four phases of the rehabilitation process. Last time we examined Phase 2: Preprosthetic Training. Today, we will examine Phases 3 & 4: Basic and Advanced Prosthetic Training.

Phases 3: Basic Prosthetic Training

During the basic prosthetic training phase, the patient will receive an initial prosthesis, and physical therapy will focus on:

Gait training

Progressive strengthening

Balance

Prosthetic management.

During this phase, it is important that the patient be patient. There may be an urge to rush the process, but doing too much too soon may lead to skin irritation or the development of abnormal gait patterns. The physical therapist will push as hard as the patient can safely tolerate, but will need to carefully control the pace of the therapy process.

Phase 4: Advanced Prosthetic Training

Once the basics of prosthetic training are mastered, the next step involves more advanced exercises designed to return the patient to the highest functional level that the injury will allow. At this point, the residual limb is fully fit with the prosthesis and the patient has relearned basic movement and mobility with the prosthesis. It is now time to advance the therapy to the final level so that the patient can return to normal daily activities. From here, it is up to the patient to push himself to comfortable limits, assisted by his physical therapist.

As in the first phase, there will likely be many questions going forward, but the physical therapist can generally answer them thoroughly, but can refer the patient to his doctor or other proper authority if necessary.

Next week, we will examine Part 2 of this series: Occupational Therapy for amputees with prosthetics or orthotics.

As part of a comprehensive rehabilitation program, the patient will also need occupational therapy, especially if the patient has lost an arm. Independence is the ultimate goal of any therapy.

As in physical therapy, there are four phases to occupational therapy.

In Part 2 of the rehabilitation process, we will explore the first two phases of Occupational Therapy; the Healing Phase and the Preprosthetic Training Phase.

Phase 1: The Healing Phase

At this point, the patient’s limb will be tender, swollen, sensitive and weak. So this phase will focus on:

Controlling swelling and pain

Improving tolerance to sensations

Increasing range of motion (ROM).

The patient’s limb will be wrapped in an elastic bandage called a “shrinker”. This will help to control pain and swelling. The patient will likely feel like the missing limb is still there. This phenomenon is called, “phantom” sensation”. While these sensations may feel uncomfortable, the experience is quite normal. The therapist will massage the limb and teach the patient techniques to decrease phantom sensations and the sensitivity to touch of the residual limb. Range-of-Motion (ROM) exercises, will not only actively decrease swelling, but will prepare the muscles for use with the prosthesis they will operate.

Phase 2: Preprosthetic Training

If the dominant arm is lost, the patient will have to begin to learn how to change his hand dominance. The process may be frustrating, but that is to be expected. As the patient is learning to accomplish tasks with one hand, s/he will begin a rigorous strengthening program. It can be difficult to learn to complete daily activities with one hand, but the therapist understands that and will help patients work through these difficulties. Part of the process involves working with the therapist on a computer to train the remaining muscles to operate a myoelectric prosthesis. Electrodes will be placed on the skin over the muscles, and the patient will soon become aware of how those muscles work to operate a myoelectric prosthesis. Until the patient is proficient in activating these muscles, the therapist will work closely with him. This makes the next phase of therapy much easier to complete.

Next week, we will examine the next phase of prosthetic rehabilitation, Phase 3: Basic Prosthetic Training.

As always, if you are in need of post-operative prosthetic or orthotic rehabilitation, don’t wait for your family physician; visit Excel Rehabilitation Services on Burnside Ave. in Gonzales, Louisiana. You will receive one-on-one pr`ofessional care from an experienced physical therapist!

As part of a comprehensive rehabilitation program, the patient will also need occupational therapy, especially if the patient has lost an arm. Independence is the ultimate goal of any therapy.

As in physical therapy, there are four phases to occupational therapy.

Last time, we discussed the first two phases of Occupational Therapy of the rehabilitation process. This week we will explore the third phase of this process; Basic Prosthetic Training.

Phase 3: Basic Prosthetic Training Phase

During this phase, the patient will receive an initial prosthesis and begin learning how to use it. As the residual limb changes in shape and volume throughout this phase, the prosthetist may change the socket size. If the amputation involves an upper-extremity, the patient will likely receive three different types of prostheses:

An electric-operated (myoelectric) prosthesis

A body-powered, cable-controlled prosthesis

A passive, or primarily cosmetic, prosthesis.

The myoelectric prosthesis puts the least amount of pressure on the end of the limb, so if the limb is still tender, this may be the best initial choice. Batteries operate the motor of the electric prosthesis, and electrodes placed over the muscles of the patient send signals that operate his prosthetic wrist and terminal device (a hand, hook or prehensor). By prehensor, we are referring to a device that consists of a thumb-like component and a finger component and resembles lobster claws or pliers.

To operate your body-powered prosthesis, the patient uses his shoulder muscles to put tension on a cable that will open and close the prosthetic terminal device.

The passive prosthesis, sometimes called a semi-prehensile prosthesis, is lightweight and cosmetically pleasing. Though it can be used to assist in a variety of tasks, the terminal device does not open or close.

The patient will quickly learn to operate the prosthesis and then learn to use it for all daily activities, including teeth brushing, nail clipping, dressing and eating. The therapist and prosthetist will help the patient accomplish these goals every step of the way to patient independence

As part of a comprehensive rehabilitation program, the patient will also need occupational therapy, especially if the patient has lost an arm. Independence is the ultimate goal of any therapy.

As in physical therapy, there are four phases to occupational therapy.

Last time, we discussed the Phase 3 of Occupational Therapy of the rehabilitation process. This week we will explore the fourth and final phase of this process; Advanced Functional Training.

Phase 4: Advanced Functional Training Phase

During this phase, you will learn to use your prosthesis for activities that are important to you. These activities may range from household maintenance chores and responsibilities, such as lawn care and home repairs, to job-specific tasks and recreational activities. If there is something that you want to accomplish, we will work with you to train you. Also, if you return home and find that you want to participate in other activities, you can call the therapist or prosthetist for suggestions and assistance. Your ability to use your prosthesis efficiently to achieve your independence is our ultimate goal.

Stay Focused

None of this is easy, and you may be tempted at times to give up. Don’t! It will be a challenge, but the results can be amazing.

During the education process, we will answer all of your questions about the rehabilitation process, including prosthetic devices and maximizing your function. A wise man once said, “The only stupid question is the one that was never asked.” Always keep this in mind throughout your rehabilitation. Remember that there are many dedicated professionals involved in your care to ensure that you receive the best treatment possible and to see that all of your questions are answered.

As always, if you are in need of post-operative prosthetic or orthotic rehabilitation, don’t wait for your family physician; visit Excel Rehabilitation Services on Burnside Ave. in Gonzales, Louisiana. You will receive one-on-one professional care from an experienced physical therapist!

Online Sources:

http://www.oandp.org/

Rosenbaum-Chou, Teri PhD; Daly, Wayne CPO; Austin, Ray ATA; Chaubey, Pravin MS; Boone, David A. PhD, CP, MPH. Development and Real World Use of a Vibratory Haptic Feedback System for Upper-Limb Prosthetic Users

Patterson PE, Katz JA. Design and evaluation of a sensory feedback system that provides grasping pressure in a myoelectric hand. J Rehabil Res Dev 1992;29(1):1–8.

Meek SG, Jacobsen SC, Goulding PP. Extended physiologic taction: design and evaluation of a proportional force feedback system. J Rehabil Res Dev 1989;26(3):53–62.

Next week, we will examine the final phase of prosthetic rehabilitation, Phase 4: Advanced Functional Training.

As always, if you are in need of post-operative prosthetic or orthotic rehabilitation, don’t wait for your family physician; visit Excel Rehabilitation Services on Burnside Ave. in Gonzales, Louisiana. You will receive one-on-one professional care from an experienced physical therapist!

Online Sources:

http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/47245/title/Artificial-Touch-Enabled/

http://www.oandp.org/

Patterson PE, Katz JA. Design and evaluation of a sensory feedback system that provides grasping pressure in a myoelectric hand. J Rehabil Res Dev 1992;29(1):1–8.

Meek SG, Jacobsen SC, Goulding PP. Extended physiologic taction: design and evaluation of a proportional force feedback system. J Rehabil Res Dev 1989;26(3):53–62.

Online Sources:

http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/47245/title/Artificial-Touch-Enabled/

http://www.oandp.org/

Patterson PE, Katz JA. Design and evaluation of a sensory feedback system that provides grasping pressure in a myoelectric hand. J Rehabil Res Dev 1992;29(1):1–8.

Meek SG, Jacobsen SC, Goulding PP. Extended physiologic taction: design and evaluation of a proportional force feedback system. J Rehabil Res Dev 1989;26(3):53–62.

Online Sources:

http://www.amputee-coalition.org/military-instep/reclaiming-independence.html

http://www.oandp.org/

Online Sources:

http://www.amputee-coalition.org/military-instep/reclaiming-independence.html

http://www.oandp.org/

https://authorityremedies.com/home-remedies-for-tennis-elbow/

Online Sources:

http://www.amputee-coalition.org/military-instep/reclaiming-independence.html

http://www.oandp.org/

To help people who have lost a limb due to accident, military service, or disease, replacing that limb with something as serviceable as possible is the ultimate goal of prosthetic researchers. For the amputee, a functioning bionic limb is perhaps the “Holy Grail” of limb replacement.

This week, we will revisit the subject of bionic prosthetics in order to introduce more recent technological advancements in neurobionic technology that could make artificial limbs a much more functional replacement than the old “hook” or “peg leg” (arrgh!).

Artificial Touch

When we talk about prosthetics as it relates to rehabilitation, it is important to understand the concept of tactile sensory feedback or haptics. For most people, this means that they can feel what they touch, which gives the brain information about gripping objects, for example. For the amputee, this lack of haptic feedback presents the unique problem of not being able to feel what they touch with the prosthetic, so they must often rely on visual feedback instead. Having to simply watch their prosthetic hand constantly creates a tremendous cognitive load on the user’s senses.

It should be noted that there are a number of other types of indirect feedback that the amputee can respond to. This would include: sensing pressure changes and motor vibrations on the remainder of the limb, the sound of prosthetic motors, and the cognitive correlation of grip force with the closing velocity of the prosthetic gripping mechanism.

Since the 1980s researchers have focused their investigations on external devices to achieve closed-loop prosthetic control with sensation modality matching (touch, pressure, shear, and temperature). The resulting devices include Dr. Patrick Patterson’s pressure cuff system that applied pressure to the arm in proportion to pressure on the prosthetic hand and Dr. Sanford Meek’s motor-driven pusher to apply a perpendicular force to the user's skin in proportion to the force at the prosthetic hand. However; regaining some measure of haptic feedback to reduce cognitive demand is the goal of prosthetic researchers at the University of Pittsburgh.

Operating on test subject, Nathan Copeland, who was paralyzed from the upper chest down in a car accident in 2004, Pitt researchers implanted a microelectrode array in Copeland’s brain region involved in touch perception, the somatosensory cortex. The researchers then connected electrodes to a smart prosthetic arm and delivered mild electrical currents, called microstimulation to the electrodes to test the system. At first, the patient felt no response, but after about a month, the microstimulation produced results. Copeland experienced a natural touch sensation in response to stimulation of his sensory cortex. After this breakthrough, the sensory feelings continued for the duration of the six-month study.

Study coauthor Robert Gaunt of the University of Pittsburgh said in an official release, “The ultimate goal is to create a system which moves and feels just like a natural arm would. “We have a long way to go to get there, but this is a great start.”

Next week, we will continue this series with cutting-edge breakthroughs in neuroprosthetics, a technology that brings us one step closer to the truly bionic limb.

In the meantime; if you are in need of prosthetic or orthotic rehabilitation, don’t wait for your family physician; visit Excel Rehabilitation Services on Burnside Ave. in Gonzales, Louisiana. You will receive one-on-one professional care from an experienced physical therapist!

Last time, we revisited the subject of prosthetic bionics with haptic feedback technology, the first part of a three-part series directed to improving the lives of amputees with bionic technologies.

This week, we will continue this series with cutting-edge breakthroughs in neuroprosthetics, a technology that brings us one step closer to the truly bionic limb.

Neuroprosthetics

First, let’s get a quick definition: Neuroprosthetics is a discipline related to neuroscience and biomedical engineering concerned with developing neural prostheses, also called neuroprostheses. They are sometimes contrasted with a brain–computer interface, which connects the brain to a computer rather than a device meant to replace missing biological functionality.

Now, we need a second definition: Neuroprostheses are devices that use electrodes to interface with the nervous system and aim to restore function that has been lost due to spinal cord injury (SCI). Neuroprostheses can restore some motor, sensory, and autonomic functions by stimulating various parts of the nervous system including muscles, nerves, spinal cord, or the brain through functional electrical stimulation (FES).

To put it all together; this is a science that seeks to develop technologies that act as a substitute interface between the brain and motor or sensory function. So, if the subject has loss of motor control due to an accident or disease, neuroprostheses seek to restore that lost motor functionality through functional electrical stimulation (FES).

Stimulation with neuroprostheses

Stimulation of the nervous system has the potential to restore a number of functions that are impaired by SCI. Motor-based functional electrical stimulation (FES) uses electrodes to stimulate muscles or nerves to produce muscle contraction and restore motor function. Additionally, direct stimulation of the spinal cord has shown potential for restoring movement. Bladder neuroprostheses stimulate nerves to ameliorate incontinence or voiding dysfunction. Many people with SCI lack normal sensation below the level of the lesion and there has been a recent interest in trying to restore this ability, possibly through direct stimulation of the sensory cortex. Some recent research seems to support this assertion.

Scientists at the Feinstein Institute for Medical Research in Manhasset, New York and Battelle Memorial Institute in Columbus, Ohio have been working with SCI victim, Ian Burkhart to develop a working prototype neuroprosthetic device.

Twenty-four-year-old Ian Burkhart suffered a spinal cord injury in a diving accident that left him paralyzed from his shoulders down. Doctors implanted an electrode array in Burkhart’s brain in the part of his motor cortex that controls hand movements. Study coauthor Chad Bouton used machine-learning algorithms to decode Burkhart’s brain activity and use it to stimulate a sleeve of 130 electrodes worn on his forearm.

Burkhart trained with a neuroprosthetic device that acts as a “neural bypass” between his brain and arm muscles up to three times a week for more than a year, and was eventually able to move individual fingers, allowing him to execute precise movements such as swiping a credit card or playing a guitar video game.

The achievement builds on previous work at labs around the world, which have demonstrated brain control of computers, robotic arms, and even full-body exoskeletons.

“We think this is just the beginning, but it may be years before the technology sees widespread clinical use, however”, says study coauthor Nick Annetta.

Next week, we will conclude this series with a discussion of how a brain-computer interface made wireless robotics history, then we are going to put all this new bionic tech together.

When we talk about prosthetics as it relates to rehabilitation, it is important to understand the concept of tactile sensory feedback, or haptics. For most people, this means that they can feel what they touch, which gives the brain information about gripping objects, for example. For the amputee, this lack of haptic feedback presents the unique problem of not being able to feel what they touch with the prosthetic, so they must often rely on visual feedback instead. Having to simply watch their prosthetic hand constantly creates a tremendous cognitive load on the user’s senses.

Researcher Rob Gaunt prepares Nathan Copeland for sensory testing.

o help people who have lost a limb due to accident, military service, or disease, replacing that limb with something as serviceable as possible is the ultimate goal of prosthetic researchers. For the amputee, a functioning bionic limb is perhaps the “Holy Grail” of limb replacement.

This is the third and final installment of Neurobionics in Prosthetics, a series that attempts to connect similar advances in prosthetic technology with the concept of the bionic limb, a far more functional and intelligent prosthesis than the simple prosthetic devices available today.

Last time, discussed the second major technological breakthrough in this series with an amazing study being conducted in the field of neuroprosthetics, a technology that brings us one step closer to the truly bionic limb.

This week, we will conclude this series with a discussion of how a brain-computer interface made wireless robotics history, then we are going to put all this new bionic tech together.

Wireless Brain-Computer Interface

Up to this point, we have examined how researchers have connected tactile sensory feedback, or haptics between amputees and prosthetic attachments and using functional electrical stimulation (FES) to stimulate muscles or nerves to produce muscle contraction and restore motor function.

The final leg of our journey takes us to wireless Brain-Computer Interface (BCI), technology designed to allow a subject to wirelessly manipulate a robotic limb.

This story is about a paralyzed woman has used mind power and a robotic arm wirelessly connected to her brain to achieve the most dexterous movement yet accomplished with BCI (previously called, Brain-Machine Interface, or BMI). (Note: This is a reprinting of the original article).

Scientists have enabled a quadriplegic woman to successfully use a brain-machine interface (BMI) to move an advanced robotic arm in the most complex ways yet accomplished using the technology. In 2012, scientists at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine implanted two electrodes with dozens of contact points into the brain of Jan Scheuermann, who was paralyzed from the neck down in 2003. In initial trials, Scheuermann successfully used her thoughts to wirelessly manipulate a robotic hand, reaching in three dimensions, flexing the wrist, and gripping objects. In a new BMI study published this week (December 16) in the Journal of Neural Engineering, researchers led by the Pitt’s Jennifer Collinger reported even more impressive feats of mid-controlled robotic motion. After additional training, Scheuermann successfully controlled the robot arm as it picked up large and small boxes, a rock, a ball, and tubes of varying dimensions.

“Our project has shown that we can interpret signals from neurons with a simple computer algorithm to generate sophisticated, fluid movements that allow the user to interact with the environment,” said Collinger in a statement.

Although the BCI apparatus allowed Scheuermann unprecedented control of a robotic arm, the setup is not yet ready to be used outside of the laboratory. Scheuermann, 55, had the electrodes removed from her brain in October, but said she’s grateful to have participated in the study. “This is been a fantastic, thrilling, wild ride, and I am so glad I’ve done this,” she said. “This study has enriched my life, given me new friends and coworkers, helped me contribute to research, and taken my breath away.”

Conclusions

So, where do all these technological advancements this lead us? I think that they lead us to a completely bionic limb – when the technology is fully tested and ready for mainstream medical use.

Amputees have seen some advancements in prosthetics over the years, but basically, they have been ergonomic and mechanical improvements, for the most part. Now, we can see actual laboratory evidence for the real possibility that those limbs will one day be connected to the subject’s brain – wirelessly – and fully functional, with sensory feedback. What we can envision for the near future is no longer simply a mechanical prosthetic, but a truly bionic prosthesis.

With more technological breakthroughs like these, one day, amputees could be experiencing a quality of life with bionic limbs in much the same way as everyone else does with muscle and bone.

Sources:

http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/47245/title/Artificial-Touch-Enabled/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3758523/

https://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/41733/title/Brain-Machine-Interface-Goes-Wireless/

https://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/45814/title/Neuroprosthesis-Restores-Arm-Movement/

Krucoff, Max O.; Rahimpour, Shervin; Slutzky, Marc W.; Edgerton, V. Reggie; Turner, Dennis A. (2016-01-01). "Enhancing Nervous System Recovery through Neurobiologics, Neural Interface Training, and Neurorehabilitation". Neuroprosthetics: 584.

Meek SG, Jacobsen SC, Goulding PP. Extended physiologic taction: design and evaluation of a proportional force feedback system. J Rehabil Res Dev 1989;26(3):53–62.

Patterson PE, Katz JA. Design and evaluation of a sensory feedback system that provides grasping pressure in a myoelectric hand. J Rehabil Res Dev 1992;29(1):1–8.

The Academy of Spinal Cord Injury Professionals, Inc. 2013

Picture credit to http://futuristicnews.com/double-amputee-controls-two-robotic-arms-with-his-mind/

Online Sources:

The Scientist: http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/47245/title/Artificial-Touch-Enabled/

American Academy of Orthotists & Prosthetists: http://www.oandp.org/

Patterson PE, Katz JA. Design and evaluation of a sensory feedback system that provides grasping pressure in a myoelectric hand. J Rehabil Res Dev 1992;29(1):1–8.

Meek SG, Jacobsen SC, Goulding PP. Extended physiologic taction: design and evaluation of a proportional force feedback system. J Rehabil Res Dev 1989;26(3):53–62.

Sources:

http://futuristicnews.com/double-amputee-controls-two-robotic-arms-with-his-mind/

http://www.oandp.org/

http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/47245/title/Artificial-Touch-Enabled/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3758523/

https://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/45814/title/Neuroprosthesis-Restores-Arm-Movement/

Meek SG, Jacobsen SC, Goulding PP. Extended physiologic taction: design and evaluation of a proportional force feedback system. J Rehabil Res Dev 1989;26(3):53–62.

Patterson PE, Katz JA. Design and evaluation of a sensory feedback system that provides grasping pressure in a myoelectric hand. J Rehabil Res Dev 1992;29(1):1–8.

The Academy of Spinal Cord Injury Professionals, Inc. 2013

Sources:

http://futuristicnews.com/double-amputee-controls-two-robotic-arms-with-his-mind/

http://www.oandp.org/

http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/47245/title/Artificial-Touch-Enabled/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3758523/

https://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/41733/title/Brain-Machine-Interface-Goes-Wireless/

https://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/45814/title/Neuroprosthesis-Restores-Arm-Movement/

Meek SG, Jacobsen SC, Goulding PP. Extended physiologic taction: design and evaluation of a proportional force feedback system. J Rehabil Res Dev 1989;26(3):53–62.

Patterson PE, Katz JA. Design and evaluation of a sensory feedback system that provides grasping pressure in a myoelectric hand. J Rehabil Res Dev 1992;29(1):1–8.

The Academy of Spinal Cord Injury Professionals, Inc. 2013

Posted on 2018-03-12

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